King Arthur

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Data:	07.03.2007
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The legend of King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table
The legend of King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table is the most powerful and enduring in the western world. King Arthur, Guinevere, and Sir Lancelot did not really exist, but their names conjure up a romantic image of gallant knights in shining armour, elegant ladies in medieval castles, heroic quests for the Holy Grail in a world of honour and romance, and the court of Camelot at the centre of a royal and mystical Britain.
The Arthurian legend has existed for over a thousand years and is just as compelling today as it was in the faraway days of its early creators - Geoffrey of Monmouth, Robert de Boron, Chrétien de Troyes, and most majestically: Sir Thomas Malory in his epic work, Le Morte d'Arthur. Countless writers, poets, and artists (not to mention film-makers and now, webmasters) have been inspired by the life and times of King Arthur.
Was the original Arthur Roman or Welsh?
The popular literary King Arthur is thought by some historians to originate with a real but little-known figure called Riothamus who existed in post-Roman Britain in the 5th century AD, and who may also have been called Arturius. Other academics dispute this theory and believe Arthur may have early Welsh origins in the poem 'Y Gododdin' which commemorates British warriors who died in a battle at Catraeth during the 5th or 6th centuries when the native Britons fought against Germanic Saxon invaders.
The Welsh King Arthur
There is also an early Welsh poem - 'Historia Brittonum' - from around 800, which records that "at that time the Saxons increased in numbers and grew in Britain. After the death of Hengist, Octa, his son, came down from the north part of Britain to the kingdom of the Kentishmen, and from there are sprung the kings of the Kentishmen. Then Arthur fought at that time against them in those days along with the kings of the Britons, but he was their leader in battles." The poem lists Arthur's battles, culminating in his twelfth at Badon Hill.
The poem 'Annales Cambrie' from around 900 also gives references to battles: "The Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ for three days and nights on his shoulders and the Britons were the victors" and "The Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell - and there was plague in Britain and Ireland." He is mentioned in 'Preiddeu Annwn' (The Spoils of Annwn) and 'Pa gwr' (Arthur and the Porter) and in the 10th century appears in the 'Stanzas of the Grave', a Welsh poem which makes reference to the graves of several Arthurian figures.
Other early references to Arthur
William of Malmesbury in 'Gesta regum Anglorum' (c. 1125) wrote "This the Arthur about whom the foolish tales of the Britons rave even today; one who is clearly worthy to be told about in truthful histories rather than to be dreamed about in deceitful fables, since for a long time he sustained his ailing nation, and sharpened the unbroken minds of his people to war." William of Newburgh in 'Historia regum anglicarum' (1196-98) wrote, equally sceptically, "A writer has emerged who, in order to expiate the faults of these Britons, weaves the most ridiculous figments of imagination around them, extolling them with the most impudent vanity above the virtues of the Macedonians and the Romans. This man is called Geoffrey, and his other name is Arthur, because he has taken up the fables about Arthur from the old, British figments, has added to them himself, and has cloaked them with the honorable name of history by presenting them with the ornaments of the Latin tongue."
Gerald of Wales (died 1223) claims that he witnessed the exhumation of King Arthur from a grave discovered at Glastonbury Abbey in around 1190 or 1191. He states "And there was a lead cross fixed under... a stone slab. I have seen this cross, and have traced the letters sculpted into it... and they said: 'Here lies buried the famous King Arthur with Guenevere his second wife in the island of Avalon.' Several notable things arise from this inscription: that Arthur had two wives, of whom the second was buried with him, and indeed her bones were found with the bones of her husband... The place which is now called Glastonbury was in the old time called Avalon. And it is like an island, completely surrounded by marshes, whence it is called in the British tongue Inis Avallon, that is, the island of apples... It was here, to this island which is now called Glastonbury, that Morgan, a noble matron and the ruler and patron of those parts, and also close in blood to King Arthur, took Arthur after the battle of Camlann for the healing of his wounds."
Geoffrey of Monmouth's 'History of the Kings of Britain'
The comprehensive story of King Arthur was first developed in literature by Geoffrey of Monmouth, a monk of Welsh origin, in 'Historia Regum Britanniae' - "The History of the Kings of Britain" - completed in about 1138 (in Latin). As well as defining the origins of King Arthur, it is also one of the great books of the Middle Ages. Following medieval practice, Geoffrey of Monmouth portrays King Arthur in contemporary terms but places his reign shortly after Britain's separation from the Roman Empire during its final period in western Europe, around the year 410.
Monmouth's so-called 'History' begins well before the time of King Arthur and goes back to about 1200 BC into a time of Greek and Roman epic. The Trojan Prince, Aeneas, who took refuge in Italy after the fall of Troy, had a grandson called Brutus, who later came to Britain - then known as Albion - with a group of Trojan refugees. They took possession of the island and renamed it "Britain" after Brutus himself and they founded "New Troy", later called London, on the River Thames. He also details the Roman conquest of Britain and, of later significance, the origins of Brittany, a Roman colony established as a kingdom in its own right during the fourth Century AD, largely by Britons who were allowed to settle there after having served with the Roman Army.
Britain (or what is now England and Wales) was then ravaged by fierce, marauding barbarians - including the Picts (from what is now Scotland) - an onslaught from which it eventually recovered, a period which set the stage for the Arthurian era and the glories of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
Aid from Rome was coming to an end, and because Britons had lost the nouse to defending themselves independently of Rome, the Archbishop of London went to the kingdom of Brittany and offered the crown of Britain to Brittany's ruler, Aldroenus, if he would take charge of Britain's defence. Aldroenus's brother, Constantine, took up the challenge, and after he had defeated the marauding hordes was crowned king at the city of Silchester. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's story, Constantine got married and had three sons: Constans, Aurelius Ambrosius, and... enter Uther Pendragon, later the father of King Arthur.
Independence from Rome
In the fifth century AD, Britain was finally independent of Rome. King Constantine continued to reign for ten years until he was assassinated by a Pict. On the advice of a devious nobleman called Vortigern, Constantine's eldest son, Constans, became King of Britain but he was weak and Vortigern was able to influence how the kingdom was ruled. He took over the treasury, appointed his supporters to important positions, and assembled a force of Pictish guards - some of whom assassinated the young King Constans. Vortigern executed the assassins and took the crown for himself, and the two remaining sons of Constantine, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon, fled to safety in Brittany.
At this point, two Saxon refugees, the brothers Hengist and Horsa, landed in Kent with a small force of mercenaries. They offered to help King Vortigern repel the marauding Picts, and in return, Hengist was given parts of Lincolnshire and encouraged to bring more Saxons into Britain - concentrated in Kent. During a royal banquet, the King became smitten with love for Hengist's beautiful daugher, Renwein (or Rowena) and Hengist agreed to their marriage in exchange for the whole of Kent.
Geoffrey of Monmouth continued: the Saxon invasion
As a result, Britain became populated by increasing numbers heathen Saxons, and fearing the country would be overrun by the new race, the Briton's leaders protested to the King, who, having married a Saxon, refused to listen. So the leaders proclaimed Prince Vortimer as King, who in a succession of battles drove large numbers of Saxons (including Hengist himself) out of Kent and back to the Continent.
Vortimer was poisoned on the orders of his stepmother and King Vortigern resumed his rule, encouraging the Saxons to return. Hengist reappeared in Kent with a large army and massacred a number of unarmed British nobles at a conference supposedly arranged to draw up a peace treaty between the British and the Saxons. He spared Vortigern's life but Saxons took over the country's major cities, such as London and York. Vortigern took refuge in the remote mountains of Snowdonia in Wales, where he tried to build a fortress, but the stones of its walls kept sinking into the ground - a problem that soothsayers said could only be solved by sprinkling on the stones the blood of a boy with no father.
The appearance of Merlin and the end of Vortigern
Enter Merlin. Vortigern's messengers found him as a boy in Carmarthen - his mother claimed he had been begotten by a spirit who would appear and disappear. Merlin solved the problem of the sinking stones not by being sacrificed but by detecting an underground pool on Vortigern's chosen site. The pool was emptied and two dragons appeared - one white and one red. The dragons fought each other and at first, the white one (which according to Merlin represented the Saxons) was winning, but eventually the red one won (representing the Britons). This foretold that the current Saxon dominance in Britain - all Vortigern's fault - would eventually be overcome by the forces of Good.
Merlin warned Vortigern that his end was nigh. The refugee Princes, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon, were on their way back from exile in Brittany. When they landed, Aurelius was crowned King, and he laid seige on Vortigern in a castle near Monmouth. The castle was set on fire and Vortigern perished at last. Aurelius's army went on to drive the Saxons back towards the North Sea, where Hengist was also caught and killed, but the reign of Aurelius was short. One of Vortigern's surviving sons arranged to have him poisoned by a fake doctor when he was sick, and he was succeeded by his younger brother, Uther Pendragon. After dealing with a Saxon revival, King Uther held court in London one Easter.
After one of Vortigern's surviving sons had arranged to have King Aurelius Ambrosius poisoned by a fake doctor when he was sick, he was succeeded by his younger brother, Uther Pendragon. Uther's arrival on the throne opened the door to the recovery of Merlin the Wizard's 'red dragon' (Britons) but it was through the appearance of King Arthur (ably assisted by Merlin) that the danger from the Saxons and internal feuding among Britons would be finally dealt with.
At a court gathering in London one Easter, King Uther was overcome with an intense and obvious lust for Ygerna, the beautiful wife of the Duke of Cornwall. So the Duke - called Gorlois - took his wife away from the court, which greatly offended Uther, who ordered Gorlois to return. Gorlois had tucked Ygerna away in Tintagel Castle at his dukedom in Cornwall and he refused to bring her back to London, so Uther marched to Cornwall with his army. He beat his way past Gorlois' weaker forces, and having taken one of Merlin's potions, which turned him into an exact likeness of Gorlois, he tricked his way into the castle and to Ygerna. Thinking he was her husband, she allowed Uther into her bed, and Arthur was conceived. The unfortunate Gorlois was subsequently killed and Uther, in his true identity, took Ygerna as his own wife.
Arthur becomes the King of Britain and defeats the Saxons
As King Uther began to fail in health, the Saxons remained a problem. They eventually managed to have him poisoned but Arthur was nonetheless crowned King of Britain at Silchester. Though still young, he was an able leader, and after winning three battles around the country he forced the Saxons - who were assisted by the Picts and Scots - to promise to leave Britain. But once out at sea, they went back on their promise, believing they could sail from the North Sea round into the English Channel and surprise Arthur by landing in Devon. The plan was foiled. Arthur and his army met the Saxons at the ancient Roman city of Bath and - once and for all - defeated them in battle on a nearby hill. He also secured final victory in the North, against the Picts and Scots.
Arthur was a popular King, who became known for his outstanding courage and generosity. Lands were given back to their rightful owners and churches were rebuilt. He also married Guinevere, who was of Roman descent, then he conquered Ireland and Iceland. As a result of his wise rule, there followed a 'golden age' of peace, stability, and dignity in Britain.
King Arthur goes into Europe
King Arthur's new ethos of courtliness, nobility, and selfless bravery became established in common life, and his influence began to extend itself. He took his armies into Norway and Denmark, then invaded Gaul, which was still under the loose hold of Rome in the form of the Roman tribune, Frollo, whom Arthur killed in combat. The Kingdom of Britain had by now risen above all others, in its riches and in its chivalric codes of conduct. Knights had become famed for their personal bravery and wore armour and colours of their own style. Women vowed only to give their devotion to brave men who had proved themselves three times in battle - thus the knights became ever more daring and the women ever more virtuous.
The Procurator of the Republic in Rome, Lucius Hiberius, sent a formal letter to King Arthur, complaining that Britain hadn't been paying its normal tribute to the empire and condemning his invasions into the European mainland. Rome was threatening war unless Britain made amends. Arthur would have none of this, and responded by marching a huge army down through Gaul, leaving Mordred, his nephew, in charge at home. Nobly assisted by his other nephew, Gawain, he overcame the Romans in the Burgundy region, killing Lucius in the process and sending his body back to Rome with a message that Britain would pay no further tributes.
The death of King Arthur and beyond
Arthur was planning to cross the Alps and attack Rome itself at the end of the winter, but he received the news that Mordred had proclaimed himself as King of Britain and was living in adultery with Guinevere. Arthur returned home, defeating the traitor's army in Cornwall by the River Camel. During the battle, Mordred was killed, but Arthur was also fatally wounded. According to the story though, Arthur gave the crown to a cousin while he was taken to the Isle of Avalon for his wounds to be nursed (by, later said by Geoffrey, to be Morgan the Enchantress). The Isle of Avalon has always remained a vague, mythical place, and Geoffrey leaves it unclear whether or not Arthur is supposed to have died of his wounds.
Geoffrey of Monmouth's 'History of the Kings of Britain' continues after King Arthur, with five more kings. The fortunes of Britain decline again towards the end, when once again the Saxons, with the support of Gormund, king of the Africans, return to possess most of what is now England, the remaining Britons being driven to take refuge in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany.
Two different Arthurs
The King Arthur of legend is not the 'historical' Arthur who may have existed in real life. Some historians believe that the now-popular Arthurian legend can be traced back to a little-known figure called Riothamus who existed in post-Roman Britain in the 5th century AD, and who may also have been called Arturius. Others believe a historical Arthur may have been of early Welsh origin. But the legendary King Arthur, the knights of the Round Table, and the court of Camelot are literary creations developed hundreds of years later in medieval times.
Arthurian Legend does not investigate or explain Riothamus or any other 'historical' Arthur but is concerned with the literary King Arthur, the mythical characters who make up his fabulous entourage of knights and ladies, and other mythical aspects of the legend: the Sangreal (Holy Grail) and the Round Table itself.
Geoffrey of Monmouth's King Arthur may have been inspired by a real figure who existed hundreds of years earlier in a vague period of European history and who might even have been called Arthur, but he did not pretend that most of his magnificent story - 'The History of the Kings of Britain' - was anything other than fiction.

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