The Eighteen Century

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Data:	03.07.2009
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The Eighteenth Century. 1702 – 1776

History and Society.

- Anne Stuarts (protestant daughter of James II) → Queen with the Act of Union 1707 (union of English and Scottish Parliaments).

- War of Spanish Succession 1701 – 14 → Britain allied with Holland and Prussia against France, Spain and Portugal → End of the War → with the Treat of Utrecht 1713→ Britain retained Gibraltar (very end of Spain opposite Morocco) and Minorca (Canaries), and gained Acadia and Hudson Bay (Canada), Newfoundland, and obtained the permission to trade with Spanish, South American Colonies and trades African Slaves.

- Phenomenon of contraband and depredation of the South American Colonies, India and Africa.
To increase commercial interests abroad → private capitals were used to support international trade → 1694 Foundation of the National Bank of England (it supported all the declaration of war initiatives of the state and financed the activities enterprises).
More territories and colonies → more business and relationship → more money → only the Bank guaranteed the incomes and keep safe the money.

- Middle class became important and richer → melt with the aristocracy through weddings → there weren’t conflicts → same interests.

- The two classes needed representations → the Parliament was divided in 2 parties – system:
§ Whigs → represented the interests of the middle class (current liberal parties) → had more money → more power;
§ Tories → represented the crown, the nobles and clergy.

- Hanoverian King George I → spoke only German and didn’t know anything about England → For this reason was chose a Prime Minister Robert Walpole → responsible of the king’s actions → the consequence was the Foundations of the Parliamentary Monarchy.

- Prime Minister Walpole → accused by the opponents to having a dictatorship and of using corruption buying the members and votes → obtain more power and he was the link between the King and Parliament.

- The control of the overseas trade and the War of Austrian Succession → pretext to begin a new conflict → Britain Holland and Austria against French, Spain and Russia → End of War → 1748 with the Peace of Aquisgrana → Britain hadn’t advantages.

- Walpole died → Stuarts allied with Tories to regain the throne → explosion of the Jacobite Rebellion led by Charles Edward Stuart → from Scotland to England, but when they arrive to Derby they came back → the end of independent Scotland with the defeat at Culloden.

- 1756 – 63 New European War → “The Seven Year’ War” → Prussia and England (Prime minister William Pitt the Elder) against the rest of Europe → French fleet was destroyed by British ship → with Treaty of Paris 1763 → France gave Senegal, Canada and some territories near Mississippi and some islands in the Caribbean.

- Britain had few trades with India (it was controlled by East India Company) and French power was stronger → with the Treaty of Paris → meant the end of French influence in India → Britain obtained many French territories → beginning of the foundation of the British Empire.

- With George III (first Hanoverian King who spoke English and knew English culture) → control of Atlantic Ocean → period of peace with the end of the War of American Independence → Britain loss → but obtained the total control of India and other territories → Australia and New Zealand discovered by James Cook.
Culture.

- Term Augustan Age → return to the Roman Empire under the Emperor Augustus → go back to the past but take in consideration the needs of the moment → diffusion of newspapers, magazines, the rise of novel.

- British ruling class considerate → themselves a heir of the Roman Empire, the parliament as the ancient roman senate, their overseas colony as the Roman Empire.
The prerequisites of the true British gentlemen →the old Roman virtues → fortitude, perseverance, self – control.
Neoclassicism → style of life → reflected in the visuals arts (poetry, architecture, sculpture, painting, gardening and town planning → same characteristics of the old Roman Empire).

- The artists → wrote satire to expose their ideas → believe in the superiority of intelligence, in improvisation and in impulse → critics against the middle class (subject of satire), corruption of aristocracy and political parties.

- Middle class → richer but no educated → got the source of information for the education from newspaper or magazines → that were wrote by learned people (aristocracy).
Clubs and coffee – houses → important for the middle class → write, meet person and discuss current events.

- Upper – class woman → more role in society → new ideals of freedom → women could take parts in debates and travel.

- Novel → genre of 18th century literature → practical and realistic → before there was the roman (unreal and based on legends of king, dragon, Merlin…).
Novel → satisfy the needs of the middle class → based on ordinary experience and sense of reality.
Robison Crusoe → middle class hero → full of enterprise of the man (food finding, building hut…), place (exact name of the location), literary form (diary…).

- Unification of Great Britain in 18th century → true “British Literature” → based on territories, people and costumes of the Empire.
In this period more money → consented the discover new markets → improved visiting places and the knowledge → to broaden the horizons.
Description of voyages around the world → very popular → “Grand Tour” → journey across Europe → the gentleman and the ladies used to stop in Paris to learn the costumes and the behaviour, than in Italy for food, life and see the best monuments.

- William Hogarth → famous painter of the moment → invented the narrative sequence of paintings → each painting in the sequence described an aspect of the general theme → reproduce the real life of the middle class in paints.
“Marriage à la Mode” → paint of Hogarth → theme was the wedding → one of the most important events was the mix of marriage.

- Subgenres of Novel → realistic (Robison Crusoe), utopian (Gulliver’s Travel), epistolary (exchange of letters - Pamela), picaresque (Tom Jones), sentimental (intense emotional reaction - Sentimental Journey), Gothic of manners (Otranto)/ of purpose (Frankenstein) / historical (Ivanhoe) / of formation (Pamela or Pride and Prejudice).
Story and plot → use not always chronological order, use of flashbacks, anticipation of events, omit details.
Style→ dialogues, descriptions, narration of the past or contemporary events, interior monologue.
Language → simple or complex syntax, sentences could be short or long, the vocabulary used concrete and realistic or abstract and symbolical.