Grammatica inglese

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'- ING' FORM
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following ways:
a. as part of the continuous form of a verb
(See continuous tenses in VERB TENSES)
Example:
I am working,
he was singing,
they have been walking.
b. after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle
Example:
• She went shopping
• He lay looking up at the clouds
• She came running towards me
This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go', as in these common expressions :
to go shopping
to go ski-ing
to go fishing
to go surfing
to go walking
to go swimming
to go running
to go dancing


c. after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle
Example:
I heard someone singing.
He saw his friend walking along the road.
I can smell something burning!
NOTE: There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to an incomplete action, or part of an action.
Compare:
• I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on afterwards)
• I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance)
d. as an adjective
Examples:
amazing, worrying, exciting, boring.
• It was an amazing film.
• It's a bit worrying when the police stop you
• Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.
• Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph.
• He was trapped inside the burning house.
• Many of his paintings depict the setting sun.
e. with the verbs spend and waste, in the pattern:
verb + time/money expression + present participle
Example:
• My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.
• Don't waste time playing computer games!
• They've spent the whole day shopping.
f. with the verbs catch and find, in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle:
With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger:
• If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!
• Don't let him catch you reading his letters.
This is not the case with find, which is unemotional:
• We found some money lying on the ground.
• They found their mother sitting in the garden.
g. to replace a sentence or part of a sentence:
When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present participle to describe one of them:
• They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went. They went laughing out into the snow.
• He whistled to himself. He walked down the road. Whistling to himself, he walked down the road.
When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a present participle:
• He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house.
• She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air.
The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because, and it explains the cause or reason for an action:
Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.
(= because he felt hungry...)
• Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
• Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.
TENSES
PAST PERFECT
Past perfect, form
The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the past participle of the main verb.
Subject
had
past participle
We
had
decided...
Affirmative
She
had
given.
Negative


We
hadn't
asked.
Interrogative


Had
they
arrived?
Interrogative negative
Hadn't
you
finished?
Example: to decide, Past perfect
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I had decided
I hadn't decided
Had I decided?
You had decided
You hadn't decided
Had you decided?
He, she, it had decided
He hadn't decided
Had she decided?
We had decided
We hadn't decided
Had we decided?
You had decided
You hadn't decided
Had you decided?
They had decided
They hadn't decided
Had they decided?
Past perfect, function
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first.
In these examples, Event A is the first or earliest event, Event B is the second or latest event:
a.
John had gone out
when I arrived in the office.
Event A
Event B
b.
I had saved my document
before the computer crashed.
Event A
Event B
c.
When they arrived
we had already started cooking
Event B
Event A
d.
He was very tired
because he hadn't slept well.
Event B
Event A
Past perfect + just
'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now, e.g.
a. The train had just left when I arrived at the station.
b. She had just left the room when the police arrived.
c. I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT
1. Present perfect - form
The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main verb. The past participle of a regular verb is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked. For irregular verbs, see the Table of irregular verbs in the section called 'Verbs'.
Affirmative
Subject
to have
past participle
She
has
visited
Negative
Subject
to have + not
past participle
She
hasn't
visited
Interrogative
to have
subject
past participle
Has
she
visited..?
Interrogative negative
to have + not
subject
past participle
Hasn't
she
visited...?
Example: to walk, present perfect
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I have walked
I haven't walked
Have I walked?
You have walked
You haven't walked
Have you walked?
He, she, it has walked
He, she, it hasn't walked
Has he,she,it walked
We have walked
We haven't walked
Have we walked?
You have walked
You haven't walked
Have you walked?
They have walked
They haven't walked
Have they walked?
2. Present perfect, function
The Present Perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in the action itself.
BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but the meaning is probably NOT the same.
The present perfect is used to describe:
1.An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. Example: I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)

2. An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. Example: She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)

3. A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. Example: We have visited Portugal several times.

4. An action that was completed in the very recent past, (expressed by 'just'). Example: I have just finished my work.

5. An action when the time is not important. Example: He has read 'War and Peace'. (the result of his reading is important)
Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, who, we use the simple past. Example: He read 'War and Peace' last week.
Examples:
1. Actions started in the past and continuing in the present.
a. They haven't lived here for years.
b. She has worked in the bank for five years.
c. We have had the same car for ten years.
d. Have you played the piano since you were a child?
2. When the time period referred to has not finished.
a. I have worked hard this week.
b. It has rained a lot this year.
c. We haven't seen her today.
3. Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now.
a. They have seen that film six times.
b. It has happened several times already.
c. She has visited them frequently.
d. We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

4. Actions completed in the very recent past (+just).
a. Have you just finished work?
b. I have just eaten.
c. We have just seen her.
d. Has he just left?

5. When the precise time of the action is not important or not known.
a. Someone has eaten my soup!
b. Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?
c. She's studied Japanese, Russian and English.
TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT + ever, never, already, yet
The adverbs ever and never express the idea of an unidentified time before now e.g. Have you ever visited Berlin?
'Ever' is used
a. in questions. e.g.
Have you ever been to England?
Has she ever met the Prime Minister?
b. in negative questions e.g.
Haven't they ever been to Europe?
Haven't you ever eaten Chinese food?
c. and in negative statements using the pattern nothing.......ever, nobody.......ever e.g.
Nobody has ever said that to me before.
Nothing like this has ever happened to us.
d. 'Ever' is also used with 'The first time.... e.g.
It's the first time (that) I've ever eaten snails.
This is the first time I've ever been to England.
'Never' means at no time before now, and is the same as not ..... ever:
I have never visited Berlin
BE CAREFUL!
You must not use never and not together:
I haven't never been to Italy.
I have never been to Italy.
Position: 'Ever' and 'never' are always placed before the main verb (past participle).
Already and yet:
Already refers to an action that has happened at an unspecified time before now. It suggests that there is no need for repetition, e.g.
a. I've already drunk three coffees this morning. (and you're offering me another one!)
b. Don't write to John, I've already done it.
It is also used in questions:
a. Have you already written to John?
b. Has she finished her homework already?
Position: already can be placed before the main verb (past participle) or at the end of the sentence:
a. I have already been to Tokyo.
b. I have been to Tokyo already.
yet is used in negative statements and questions, to mean (not) in the period of time between before now and now, (not) up to and including the present. e.g.
a. Have you met Judy yet?
b. I haven't visited the Tate Gallery yet.
c. Has he arrived yet?
d. They haven't eaten yet.
Position: Yet is usually placed at the end of the sentence.
TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT OR SIMPLE PAST?
Always use the present perfect when the time is not important, or not specified.

Always use the simple past when details about the time or place are specified or asked for.
Compare:
Present perfect
Simple past
I have lived in Lyon.
I lived in Lyon in 1989.
They have eaten Thai food.
They ate Thai food last night.
Have you seen 'Othello'?.
Where did you see 'Othello'?
We have been to Ireland.
When did you go to Ireland?
There is also a difference of attitude that is often more important than the time factor.
"What did you do at school today?" is a question about activities, and considers the school day as finished.

"What have you done at school today?" is a question about results - "show me", and regards the time of speaking as a continuation of the school day.
TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT + for, since
Using the present perfect, we can define a period of time before now by considering its duration, with for + a period of time, or by considering its starting point, with since + a point in time.
For + a period of time:
for six years, for a week, for a month, for hours, for two hours.
I have worked here for five years.
Since + a point in time:
since this morning, since last week, since yesterday,
since I was a child, since Wednesday, since 2 o'clock.
I have worked here since 1990.

More examples:
present perfect with for:
a. She has lived here for twenty years.
b. We have taught at this school for a long time.
c. Alice has been married for three months.
d. They have been at the hotel for a week.
present perfect with since:
a. She has lived here since 1980.
b. We have taught at this school since 1965.
c. Alice has been married since March 2nd.
d. They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday.
Note:
1. For and since can both be used with the past perfect.
2. Since can only be used with perfect tenses, for can also be used with the simple past.
TENSES
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
1. Present continuous, form
The present continuous of any verb is composed of two parts - the present tense of the verb to be + the present participle of the main verb.
(The form of the present participle is: base+ing, e.g. talking, playing, moving, smiling)
Affirmative
Subject
+ to be
+ base+ing
she
is
talking



Negative
Subject
+ to be + not
+ base+ing
she
is not (isn't)
talking



Interrogative
to be
+ subject
+ base+ing
is
she
talking?
Example: to go, present continuous
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I am going
I am not going
Am I going?
You are going
You aren't going.
Are you going?
He, she, it is going
He, she, it isn't going
Is he, she, it going?
We are going
We aren't going
Are we going?
You are going
You aren't going
Are you going?
They are going
They aren't going
Are they going?
Note: alternative negative contractions: I'm not going, you're not going, he's not going etc.
2. Present continuous, function
As with all tenses in English, the speaker's attitude is as important as the time of the action or event. When someone uses the present continuous, they are thinking about something that is unfinished or incomplete.
The present continuous is used:
• to describe an action that is going on at this moment e.g. You are using the Internet. You are studying English grammar.
• to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend, e.g.
Are you still working for the same company? More and more people are becoming vegetarian.
• to describe an action or event in the future, which has already been planned or prepared (See also 'Ways of expressing the future) e.g. We're going on holiday tomorrow. I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight. Are they visiting you next winter?
• to describe a temporary event or situation, e.g. He usually plays the drums, but he's playing bass guitar tonight. The weather forecast was good, but it's raining at the moment.
• with 'always, forever, constantly', to describe and emphasise a continuing series of repeated actions, e.g. Harry and Sally are always arguing! You're forever complaining about your mother-in-law!
BE CAREFUL! Some verbs are not used in the continuous form - see below.
3. Verbs that are not normally used in the continuous form
The verbs in the list below are normally used in the simple form, because they refer to states, rather than actions or processes:
List of common verbs normally used in simple form:
Senses / Perception
feel*, hear, see*, smell, taste
Opinion
assume, believe, consider, doubt, feel (= think), find (= consider), suppose, think*
Mental states
forget, imagine, know, mean, notice, recognise, remember, understand
Emotions / desires
envy, fear, dislike, hate, hope, like, love, mind, prefer, regret, want, wish
Measurement
contain, cost, hold, measure, weigh
Others
look (=resemble), seem, be (in most cases), have (when it means to possess)*
Notes:
1. 'Perception' verbs (see, hear, feel, taste, smell) are often used with 'can': e.g. I can see...
2. * These verbs may be used in the continuous form but with a different meaning, compare:
a. This coat feels nice and warm. (= your perception of the coat's qualities)
b. John's feeling much better now (= his health is improving)
a. She has three dogs and a cat. (=possession)
b. She's having supper. (= She's eating)
a. I can see Anthony in the garden (= perception)
b. I'm seeing Anthony later (= We are planning to meet)
Examples:
• I wish I was in Greece now.
• She wants to see him now.
• I don't understand why he is shouting.
• I feel we are making a mistake.
• This glass holds half a litre.
TENSES
PAST CONTINUOUS
1. Past continuous - form.
The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts : the past tense of the verb to be (was/were), and the base of the main verb +ing.
Subject
was/were
base-ing
They
were
watching
Affirmative
She
was
reading
Negative
She
wasn't
reading
Interrogative
Was
she
reading?
Interrogative negative
Wasn't
she
reading?
Example: to play, past continuous
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I was playing
I was not playing
Was I playing?
You were playing
You were not playing
Were you playing?
He, she, it was playing
She wasn't playing
Was she playing?
We were playing
We weren't playing
Were we playing?
You were playing
You weren't playing
Were you playing?
They were playing
They weren't playing
Were they playing?
2. Past continuous, function
The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and was still going on at the time of speaking. In other words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the past.
It is used:
• often, to describe the background in a story written in the past tense, e.g. "The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. The other animals were relaxing in the shade of the trees, but the elephant moved very quickly. She was looking for her baby, and she didn't notice the hunter who was watching her through his binoculars. When the shot rang out, she was running towards the river..."
• to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action: "I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."
• to express a change of mind: e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided to go on an excursion instead."
• with 'wonder', to make a very polite request: e.g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit for me tonight."
More examples:
a. They were waiting for the bus when the accident happened.
b. Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg.
c. When we arrived he was having a bath.
d. When the fire started I was watching television.
Note: with verbs not normally used in the continuous form, the simple past is used. See list in Present continuous
TENSES
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Past perfect continuous, form
The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect of the verb to be (=had been) + the present participle (base+ing).
Examples:
Subject
had been
verb-ing
I
had been
walking
Affirmative


She
had been
trying
Negative


We
hadn't been
sleeping
Interrogative


Had you
been
eating
Interrogative negative
Hadn't they
been
living
Example: to buy, past perfect continuous
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I had been buying
I hadn't been buying
Had I been buying?
You had been buying
You hadn't been buying
Had you been buying
He,she,it had been buying
He hadn't been buying
Had she been buying?
We had been buying
We hadn't been buying
Had we been buying?
You had been buying
You hadn't been buying
Had you been buying
They had been buying
They hadn't been buying
Had they been buying
Past perfect continuous, function
The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with reference to a time earlier than 'before now'. Again, we are more interested in the process.
Examples:
a. Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?
b. We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key.
c. It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.
d. Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in.
This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past continuous and the present perfect continuous in direct speech:
Jane said "I have been gardening all afternoon." Jane said she had been gardening all afternoon.
When the police questioned him, John said "I was working late in the office that night." When the police questioned him, John told them he had been working late in the office that night.
TENSES
PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR FUTURE EVENTS
1. Present continuous for the future, form
See notes on form in section on Present Continuous.
Subject
+ to be
+ base-ing
She
is
meeting
2. Future: Present continuous for the future, function
The present continuous is used to talk about arrangements for events at a time later than now.
There is a suggestion that more than one person is aware of the event, and that some preparation has already happened. e.g.
a. I'm meeting Jim at the airport = and both Jim and I have discussed this.
b. I am leaving tomorrow. = and I've already bought my train ticket.
c. We're having a staff meeting next Monday = and all members of staff have been told about it.
More examples:
a. Is she seeing him tomorrow?
b. He isn't working next week.
c. They aren't leaving until the end of next year.
d. We are staying with friends when we get to Boston.
Note: in example (a), seeing is used in a continuous form because it means meeting.

BE CAREFUL! The simple present is used when a future event is part of a programme or time-table. Notice the difference between:

a. We're having a staff meeting next Monday.
b. We have a staff meeting next Monday.(= we have a meeting every Monday, it's on the time-table.)
UNREAL PAST
The past tense is sometimes used in English to refer to an 'unreal' situation. So, although the tense is the past, we are usually talking about the present, e.g. in a Type 2 conditional sentence:
If an elephant and a mouse fell in love, they would have many problems.
Although fell is in the past tense, we are talking about a hypothetical situation that might exist now or at any time, but we are not referring to the past. We call this use the unreal past.
Other situations where this occurs are:
• after other words and expressions like 'if' (supposing, if only, what if);
• after the verb 'to wish';
• after the expression 'I'd rather..'
Expressions like 'if'
The following expressions can be used to introduce hypothetical situations:
- supposing, if only, what if. They are followed by a past tense to indicate that the condition they introduce is unreal:
• Supposing an elephant and a mouse fell in love? (= but we know this is unlikely or impossible)
• What if we painted the room purple? (= that would be very surprising)
• If only I had more money. (= but I haven't).
These expressions can also introduce hypothetical situations in the past and then they are followed by the past perfect.
Examples:
• If only I hadn't kissed the frog (= I did and it was a mistake because he turned into a horrible prince, but I can't change it now.)
• What if the elephant had trodden on the mouse? (She didn't, but we can imagine the result!)
• Supposing I had given that man my money! (I didn't, so I've still got my money now.)
The verb to wish
The verb to wish is followed by an 'unreal' past tense when we want to talk about situations in the present that we are not happy about but cannot change:
• I wish I had more money (=but I haven't)
• She wishes she was beautiful (= but she's not)
• We wish we could come to your party (but we can't)
When we want to talk about situations in the past that we are not happy about or actions that we regret, we use the verb to wish followed by the past perfect:
• I wish I hadn't said that (= but I did)
• He wishes he hadn't bought the car (= but he did buy it.)
• I wish I had taken that job in New York (= but I didn't, so I'm stuck in Bristol)
NOTE: When we want to talk about situations we are not happy about and where we want someone else to change them, we use to wish followed by would + infinitive:
• I wish he would stop smoking. (= I don't like it, I want him to change it)
• I wish you would go away. (= I don't want you here, I want you to take some action)
• I wish you wouldn't squeeze the toothpaste from the middle! (= I want you to change your habits.)
I'd rather and it's time...
These two expressions are also followed by an unreal past. The verb is in the past tense, but the situation is in the present.
When we want to talk about a course of action we would prefer someone else to take, we use I'd rather + past tense:
• I'd rather you went
• He'd rather you called the police
• I'd rather you didn't hunt elephants.
NOTE: the stress can be important in these sentences, to show what our preference is:
• I'd rather you went = not me,
• I'd rather you went = don't stay
• He'd rather you called the police = he doesn't want to
• He'd rather you called the police = not the ambulance service
Similarly, when we want to say that now is a suitable moment to do something, either for ourselves or for someone else, we use it's time + past tense:
• It's (high) time I went.
• It's time you paid that bill.
• Don't you think it's time you had a haircut?
TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Present perfect continuous, form
The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements: (a) the present perfect of the verb 'to be' (have/has been), and (b) the present participle of the main verb (base+ing).
Subject
has/have been
base+ing
She
has been
swimming
Affirmative
She has been / She's been
running
Negative
She hasn't been
running
Interrogative
Has she been
running?
Interrogative negative
Hasn't she been
running?
Example: to live, present perfect continuous
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I have been living
I haven't been living
Have I been living?
You have been living
You haven't been living
Have you been living?
He, she, it has been living
He hasn't been living
Has she been living?
We have been living
We haven't been living
Have we been living?
You have been living
You haven't been living
Have you been living?
They have been living
They haven't been living
Have they been living?
Present perfect continuous, function
The present perfect continuous refers to an unspecified time between 'before now' and 'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still be going on, or may have just finished.
Examples:
1. Actions that started in the past and continue in the present.
a. She has been waiting for you all day (=and she's still waiting now).
b. I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (=and I still haven't finished it).
c. They have been travelling since last October (=and they're not home yet).
2. Actions that have just finished, but we are interested in the results:
a. She has been cooking since last night (=and the food on the table looks delicious).
b. It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet).
c. Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).
Note:
Verbs without continuous forms
With verbs not normally used in the continuous form, use the present perfect simple. See list of these verbs under 'Present Continuous':
• I've wanted to visit China for years.
• She's known Robert since she was a child.
• I've hated that music since I first heard it.
• I've heard a lot about you recently.
• We've understood everything we've heard this morning.
KINDS OF ADVERBS
RELATIVE ADVERBS
The following adverbs can be used to join sentences or clauses. They replace the more formal structure of preposition + which in a relative clause:
where, when, why
Examples:
• That's the restaurant where we met for the first time.
(where = at/in which)
• I remember the day when we first met.
(when = on which)
• There was a very hot summer the year when he was born.
(when = in which)
• Tell me (the reason) why you were late home.
(why = for which, but could replace the whole phrase 'the reason for which')
KINDS OF ADVERBS
INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
These are:
why, where, how, when
They are usually placed at the beginning of a question.
Examples:
• Why are you so late?
• Where is my passport?
• How are you?
• How much is that coat?
• When does the train arrive?
Notice that how can be used in four different ways:
1. meaning 'in what way?':
How did you make this sauce?
How do you start the car?
2. with adjectives:
How tall are you?
How old is your house?
3. with much and many:
How much are these tomatoes?
How many people are coming to the party?
4. with other adverbs:
How quickly can you read this?
How often do you go to London?
KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.
Common adverbs of degree:
Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely.
Adverbs of degree are usually placed:
1. before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
e.g. The water was extremely cold.
2. before the main verb:
e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished.
Examples:
• She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.
• They are completely exhausted from the trip.
• I am too tired to go out tonight.
• He hardly noticed what she was saying.
Enough, very, too
Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and adverbs.
Example:
• Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)
• He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)
It also goes before nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In this case it is not an adverb, but a 'determiner'.
Example:
• We have enough bread.
• They don't have enough food.
Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives and adverbs, e.g.
• This coffee is too hot. (adjective)
• He works too hard. (adverb)
Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'.
Example:
• The dress was big enough for me.
• She's not experienced enough for this job.
• The coffee was too hot for me.
• The dress was too small for her.
We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb.
Example:
• The coffee was too hot to drink.
• He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.
• She's not old enough to get married.
• You're too young to have grandchildren!
Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.
Example:
• The girl was very beautiful. (adjective)
• He worked very quickly. (adverb)
If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, or not very.
Example:
• The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful
• He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly.
BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very.
• Very expresses a fact:
He speaks very quickly.
• Too suggests there is a problem:
He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).
Other adverbs like very
These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength, from positive to negative:
extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not particularly.
Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows:
Positive: The teacher was rather nice.
Negative: The film was rather disappointing.
Note on inversion with negative adverbs:
Normally the subject goes before the verb:
SUBJECT
VERB
I
She
left
goes
However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb goes before the subject
Example:
I have never seen such courage. Never have I seen such courage.
She rarely left the house. Rarely did she leave the house.
Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking.
Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this:
seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only .....
but also, no sooner .....
than, not until, under no circumstances.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
PASSIVE TENSES AND ACTIVE EQUIVALENTS

Notice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is the same as the tense of the main verb in the active voice.
Example: to keep
TENSE / VERB FORM
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present
keeps
is kept
Present continuous
is keeping
is being kept
Simple past
kept
was kept
Past continuous
was keeping
was being kept
Present perfect
have kept
have been kept
Past perfect
had kept
had been kept
future
will keep
will be kept
Conditional present
would keep
would be kept
Conditional past
would have kept
would have been kept
present infinitive
to keep
to be kept
perfect infinitive
to have kept
to have been kept
present participle/gerund
keeping
being kept
perfect participle
having kept
having been kept
Example sentences:
Active: I keep the butter in the fridge.
Passive: The butter is kept in the fridge.

Active: They stole the painting.
Passive: The painting was stolen.

Active: They are repairing the road.
Passive: The road is being repaired.

Active: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.

Active: A dog bit him.
Passive: He was bitten by a dog.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
PASSIVE, FORM
The passive voice in English is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + the past participle of the verb in question:
Subject
verb 'to be'
past participle
The house
was
built ...
Example: to clean
Subject
verb 'to be'
past participle
Simple present:
The house
is
cleaned every day.


Present continuous:
The house
is being
cleaned at the moment.


Simple past:
The house
was
cleaned yesterday.


Past continuous:
The house
was being
cleaned last week.


Present perfect:
The house
has been
cleaned since you left.


Past perfect:
The house
had been
cleaned before their arrival.


Future:
The house
will be
cleaned next week.


Future continuous:
The house
will be being
cleaned tomorrow.


Present conditional:
The house
would be
cleaned if they had visitors.


Past conditional:
The house
would have been
cleaned if it had been dirty.
NOTE: 'to be born' is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense:
I was born in 1976. When were you born?
BUT: Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.
Infinitive form: infinitive of 'to be' + past participle: (to) be cleaned
This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by an infinitive, e.g.
You have to be tested on your English grammar
John might be promoted next year.
She wants to be invited to the party.
Gerund or -ing form: being + past participle: being cleaned
This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund
Examples:
a. Most film stars hate being interviewed.
b. I remember being taught to drive.
c. The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.
NOTE: Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of the verb to be:
a. He got arrested for dangerous driving.
b. They're getting married later this year.
c. I'm not sure how the window got broken.
THE QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers with countable
and uncountable nouns
Adjectives and adjectival phrases that describe quantity are shown below. Some can only go with countable nouns (friends, cups, people), and some can only go with uncountable nouns (sugar, tea, money, advice). The words in the middle column can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Only with
uncountable nouns
With uncountable
and countable nouns
Only with
countable nouns
How much?
How much? or How many?
How many?
a little
no/none
a few
a bit (of)
not any
a number (of)
-
some (any)
several
a great deal of
a lot of
a large number of
a large amount of
plenty of
a great number of
-
lots of
-
+ noun
Note: much and many are used in negative and question forms.
Example:
• How much money have you got?
• How many cigarettes have you smoked?
• There's not much sugar in the cupboard.
• There weren't many people at the concert.
They are also used with too, (not) so, and (not) as :There were too many people at the concert - we couldn't see the band.
It's a problem when there are so many people.
There's not so much work to do this week.
In positive statements, we use a lot of:
• I've got a lot of work this week.
• There were a lot of people at the concert.
TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
1. Form
In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION)
MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present
If it rains
If you don't hurry
Simple future
you will get wet
we will miss the train.
2. Function
In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result. They are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We often use such sentences to give warnings:
• If you don't leave, I'll call the police.
• If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot!
Examples:
• If you drop that glass, it will break.
• Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.
• If I have time, I'll finish that letter.
• What will you do if you miss the plane?
NOTE: We can use modals to express the degree of certainty of the result:
• If you drop that glass, it might break.
• I may finish that letter if I have time.
'IF' SENTENCES AND THE 'UNREAL' PAST
In this section you will find information on sentences containing the word 'if', the use of conditional tenses, and the 'unreal past', that is, when we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to past time.
IF AND THE CONDITIONAL
There are four main types of 'if' sentences in English:
1. The 'zero' conditional, where the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present
If you heat ice
If it rains
simple present
it melts.
you get wet
In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They are often used to refer to general truths.
2. The Type 1 conditional, where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present
If it rains
If you don't hurry
Simple future
you will get wet
we will miss the train.
In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result.
3. The Type 2 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past
If it rained
If you went to bed earlier
Present conditional
you would get wet
you wouldn't be so tired.
In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result.
4. The Type 3 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If it had rained
If you had worked harder
Perfect conditional
you would have got wet
you would have passed the exam.
In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed, and they refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result.
A further type if 'if' sentence exists, where Type 2 and Type 3 are mixed. The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If I had worked harder at school
If we had looked at the map
Present conditional
I would have a better job now.
we wouldn't be lost.
In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.
TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
1. Form
In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past
If it rained
If you went to bed earlier
Present conditional
you would get wet
you wouldn't be so tired.
Present conditional, form
The present conditional of any verb is composed of two parts - the modal auxiliary would + the infinitive of the main verb (without 'to'.)
Subject
would
infinitive without to
She
would
learn
Affirmative
I
would
go
Negative
I
wouldn't
ask
Interrogative
Would
she
come?
Interrogative negative
Wouldn't
they
accept?
Would: Contractions of would
In spoken English, would is contracted to 'd.
I'd
We'd
you'd
you'd
he'd, she'd
they'd
The negative contraction = wouldn't.
Example: to accept, Present conditional
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I would accept
I wouldn't accept
Would I accept?
You would accept
You wouldn't accept
Would you accept?
He would accept
She wouldn't accept
Would he accept?
We would accept
We wouldn't accept
Would we accept?
You would accept
You wouldn't accept
Would you accept?
They would accept
They wouldn't accept
Would they accept?
2. Function
In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. The use of the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality. We can nearly always add a phrase starting with "but", that expresses the real situation:
• If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park (...but it is bad, so we can't go)
• If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone £100. (...but I'm not, so I won't)
Examples of use:
1. To make a statement about something that is not real at present, but is possible:
I would visit her if I had time. (= I haven't got time but I might have some time)
2. To make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never could be real:
If I were you, I'd give up smoking (but I could never be you)
Examples:
a. If I was a plant, I would love the rain.
b. If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.
c. If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.
d. You wouldn't need to read this if you understood English grammar.
e. Would he go to the concert if I gave him a ticket?
f. They wouldn't invite her if they didn't like her
g. We would be able to buy a larger house if we had more money
NOTE: It is correct, and very common, to say "If I were" instead of "If I was".
TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
1. Form
In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If it had rained
If you had worked harder
Perfect conditional
you would have got wet
you would have passed the exam.
Perfect conditional - form
The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of two elements: would + the perfect infinitive of the main verb (=have + past participle):
Subject
would
perfect infinitive
He
They
would
would
have gone...
have stayed...
Affirmative


I
would
have believed ...
Negative


She
wouldn't
have given...
Interrogative


Would
you
have left...?
Interrogative negative


Wouldn't
he
have been...?
Example: to go, Past conditional
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I would have gone
I wouldn't have gone
Would I have gone?
You would have gone
You wouldn't have gone
Would you have gone?
He would have gone
She wouldn't have gone
Would it have gone?
We would have gone
We wouldn't have gone
Would we have gone?
You would have gone
You wouldn't have gone
Would you have gone?
They would have gone
They wouldn't have gone
Would they have gone?
In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed.
Type 3 conditional sentences, are truly hypothetical or unreal, because it is now too late for the condition or its result to exist. There is always an unspoken "but..." phrase:
• If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam
(but I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass the exam).
• If I'd known you were coming I'd have baked a cake
(but I didn't know, and I haven't baked a cake).
NOTE: Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing. Remember that you NEVER use would in the IF-clause, so in the example above, "If I'd known" must be "If I had known", and "I'd have baked" must be "I would have baked.."
Examples:
a. If I'd known you were in hospital, I would have visited you.
b. I would have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.
c. If they'd had a better goalkeeper they wouldn't have lost the game.
d. If you had told me you were on the Internet, I'd have sent you an e-mail.
e. Would you have bought an elephant if you'd known how much they eat?
MIXED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence:
A. Present result of past condition:

1. Form
The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If I had worked harder at school
If we had looked at the map
Present conditional
I would have a better job now.
we wouldn't be lost.
2. Function
In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. They express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the present:
'If I had worked harder at school' is contrary to past fact - I didn't work hard at school, and 'I would have a better job now' is contrary to present fact - I haven't got a good job.
If we had looked at the map (we didn't), we wouldn't be lost (we are lost).
Examples:
• I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job.
• If you'd caught that plane you'd be dead now.
• If you hadn't spent all your money on CDs, you wouldn't be broke.
B. Past result of present or continuing condition.
1. Form
The tense in the If-clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past
If I wasn't afraid of spiders
If we didn't trust him
Perfect conditional
I would have picked it up.
we would have sacked him months ago.



2. Function
In these sentences the time in the If-clause is now or always, and the time in the main clause is before now. They refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result:
• 'If I wasn't afraid of spiders' is contrary to present reality - I am afraid of spiders, and 'I would have picked it up' is contrary to past reality - I didn't pick it up.
• 'If we didn't trust him' is contrary to present reality - we do trust him, and 'we would have sacked him' is contrary to past reality - we haven't sacked him.
Examples:
a. If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat.
b. I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.
c. If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch.
d. If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.
TENSES
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Future continuous, form
The future continuous is made up of two elements: the simple future of the verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing)
Subject
simple future, 'to be'
base+ing
You
will be
watching
Affirmative
I will be asking
Negative
She won't be leaving
Interrogative
Will they be retiring?
Interrogative negative
Won't we be staying?
Example: to stay, future continuous
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I will be staying
I won't be staying
Will I be staying?
You will be staying
You won't be staying
Will you be staying?
He, she, it will be staying
He won't be staying
Will she be staying?
We will be staying
We won't be staying
Will we be staying?
You will be staying
You won't be staying
Will you be staying?
They will be staying
They won't be staying
Will they be staying?
Future continuous, function
The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later than now. It is used:
a. to project ourselves into the future and see something happening: This time next week I will be sun-bathing in Bali.
b. to refer to actions/events that will happen in the normal course of events: I'll be seeing Jim at the conference next week.
c. in the interrogative form, especially with 'you', to distinguish between a simple request for information and an invitation: Will you be coming to the party tonight? (= request for information) Will you come to the party? (= invitation)
d. to predict or guess about someone's actions or feelings, now or in the future: You'll be feeling tired after that long walk, I expect.
More examples:
a. events in progress in the future:
When you are in Australia will you be staying with friends?
This time next week you will be working in your new job.
At four thirty on Tuesday afternoon I will be signing the contract.
b. events/actions in normal course of events:
I'll be going into town this afternoon, is there anything you want from the shops?
Will you be using the car tomorrow? - No, you can take it.
I'll be seeing Jane this evening - I'll give her the message.
c. asking for information:
Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight?
Will Jim be coming with us?
d. predicting or guessing:
You'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.
He'll be coming to the meeting, I expect.
You'll be missing the sunshine now you're back in England.